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​ Understanding density is extremely important for a firefighter. For example, the density of a gas or vapour determines whether it will tend to rise or sink in air, and therefore whether it...

Since the density of a substance is the ratio of its mass to its volume, an increase of temperature results in a decrease of density. Conversely, the volume of a given mass of the substance increases...

Heat energy can only flow from a body at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature. Heat transfer continues either until both bodies are at the same temperature or until the two bodies are...

Knowledge and understanding Control measure element Learning outcome ...

​Radioactivity has a number of uses in society; these may be summarised in an approximate order of severity of hazard: Weapons Image 109 Vanguard class submarine carrying trident nuclear...

Knowledge and understanding Control measure element Learning outcome Use the appropriate media to effectively and efficiently extinguish fire Understand the use of the...

People may be at risk from flames, heat or smoke and face a risk of injury or death. The effects of the fire and the severity of the effects will be determined by what is involved in the fire, the...

Fuel Fuel factors that influence the environmental impact of a wildfire include fuel type and form, moisture content and fuel density. In a wildfire, the predominant fuel may be grass, scrub or...

Aliphatic hydrocarbons are a series of compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. The simplest of the alkanes is methane, the main constituent of natural gas (CH4). Although relatively unreactive...

Many materials, such as fuel gases, are liquefied under pressure and stored and transported in cylinders. Liquefied gases in cylinders do not obey the gas laws, since below the critical...

The format of safety data sheets (SDS) can vary according to the region in which the product is produced, but in the European Union there is a set format. The information in the SDS must be provided...

​ Packaged goods transport labelling Different regimes are used to placard and label dangerous goods transported in packages. Following classification, the manufacturer or importer will be...

Switch-loading is the terminology used to describe the practice of loading a distillate fuel (e.g. diesel or gas oil), into a tank compartment that has previously contained petrol. Switch-loading can...

The chemical compound ammonium nitrate (AN), chemical formula NH4NO3, is a white crystalline solid at room temperature and standard pressure. It is commonly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen...

Acetylene has the following properties: Table 36 Acetylene properties Flash point -17°C Vapor density 0.91 (Acetylene is slightly lighter than air) Boiling...

Characteristics This section provides a brief overview of LPG. Many hydrocarbons exist as gases at normal atmospheric temperatures but they can be liquefied under moderate pressure. As the...

Only in the case of small leaks that have ignited and posed a contact hazard may flames be extinguished with dry agent before freeze-sealing techniques are applied. Evacuation of the surrounding...

Basic (or alkaline) materials Bases can be defined as any metal oxide, or as something that will react with acids to produce only a salt and water (sometimes violently). Characteristics: ...

Where it is known that the only radiation at an incident is from a sealed source (i.e. there is no contamination risk) protection will depend on a combination of time, distance and shielding: ...

Description Evacuation strategies in which the total building population is not expected to evacuate the building immediately upon discovery of a fire. General considerations These evacuation...